PROPYLPARABEN

Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy-specific disorder that poses a significant threat to maternal and fetal health. Its pathogenesis is regulated by multiple factors, including genetic and environmental cues, but the specific underlying mechanisms remain incompletely elucidated. Propylparaben (PP) is a widely used additive in daily products such as cosmetics and food. Previous studies have confirmed that excessive PP exposure exerts adverse effects on the reproductive system. To clarify the potential impact of PP exposure on pregnancy outcomes, this study established a continuous PP exposure model in pregnant mice. Results showed that pregnant mice in the PP group exhibited typical PE-like symptoms-hypertension and proteinuria. Concurrently, the number of multinucleated cells in uterine decidua was significantly reduced, with marked impairment of the decidualization process. To further explore the molecular mechanisms, RNA transcriptome sequencing was performed on artificially induced deciduomas. PP exposure significantly downregulated the expression of ferredoxin 1 (FDX1). Reduced FDX1 expression may decrease estrogen and progesterone levels in mice, and disrupt the normal expression of estrogen/progesterone receptors and their target genes. In summary, this study demonstrates that PP exposure may impair uterine decidualization and disturb normal placental development by inhibiting FDX1 expression, thereby inducing PE-like symptoms in pregnant mice.

Propylparaben, a frequently used preservative in cosmetics, medicines, and food items, has gained attention due to its extensive prevalence and possible ecological consequences. This research has been conducted to assess the impacts of propylparaben on hematobiochemical parameters, histopathology, oxidative stress, antioxidant enzyme activity, genotoxicity and apoptosis regulatory gene expression in Labeo rohita. Fish were exposed to three concentrations (3 mg/L, 6 mg/L, and 10 mg/L) of propyl paraben for 21 days. Results revealed significant alterations in hematobiochemical parameters. Alterations were observed in the soft tissues of fish, for example, the liver, kidneys, and gills. The gills exhibit lamellar lifting damaged epithelial tissues, deformities in bone cells, and oedema. The liver displayed elongated tubules, sinusoidal spaces, and melano-macrophages, while the kidney displayed sinusoidal spaces, necrosis, and pyknotic nuclei. Propyl paraben causes oxidative stress by inhibiting the activity of enzymes that function as antioxidants, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT) and Peroxidase (POD). Comet assay reported DNA damage in red blood cells (RBCs) of fish. Gene expression study indicated decreased expression of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2 and increased expression of the pro-apoptotic gene Bax, indicating that apoptosis in tissues causes cell death. These results indicated that propyl paraben is potentially genotoxic, causes tissue damage, alters biochemical parameters, induces oxidative stress and regulate apoptosis gene expression.

Propylparaben (PP) is a widely used preservative in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food products, and its potential toxicity to non-target aquatic invertebrates remains a concern. This study used the freshwater snail Biomphalaria glabrata as a model organism to evaluate the toxic effects of PP through acute and chronic exposures at embryonic, newly hatched, and adult stages. Acute exposure experiments showed concentration-dependent mortality and developmental inhibition, with LC 50 values of 36.69 mg/L (embryos, 168 h), 33.48 mg/L (newly hatched snails, 96 h), and 57.05 mg/L (adults, 72 h). Chronic exposure of adult snails to 10-49 mg/L PP for 21 days significantly reduced growth and reproductive output, and no embryo masses were observed at concentrations ≥ 25 mg/L. Histological observations revealed progressive damage to the hepatopancreas and gonads. These results demonstrate that PP induces multiple toxic effects in B. glabrata , affecting survival, growth, reproduction, and tissue structure under both acute and chronic exposure conditions. The findings provide experimental evidence for evaluating the ecological risks of paraben contamination in freshwater ecosystems.

In coastal tourist areas, the frequent use of sunscreen has led to the substantial release of its chemical components into the marine environment. Recent studies have demonstrated that sunscreen chemicals can undergo sea-to-air transport via sea spray aerosols (SSA). However, their transformation behavior and environmental fate in the aerosol phase remain poorly understood. This study reports the heterogeneous oxidation kinetics and mechanisms of three typical sunscreen chemicals (4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), benzophenone-4 (BP-4), and propylparaben (PrPB)) initiated by hydroxyl radicals (OH) in the aerosol phase composed of sea salt and organic matter. The measured heterogeneous rate constants for reactions with OH ranged from 2.07 × 10 -12 to 4.52 × 10 -12 cm 3 molecule -1 s -1 , corresponding to an average atmospheric lifetime of approximately 41-89 h, indicating their potential for long-distance transport before degradation. Through the characterization of the components of aged aerosols, it was found that the functionalization reactions play a key role in the oxidation process, and the unexpected decrease in the O/C ratio of BP-4 products was attributed to sulfonic group loss. In addition, the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay indicated that the aged aerosols exhibit an overall low oxidative potential. These findings enhance our understanding of the environmental behavior and potential atmospheric impact of sunscreen chemicals in SSA.

Propylparaben (PrP) is an extensively utilized antimicrobial preservative in food industry, cosmetics, personal care products, and pharmaceuticals. Nevertheless, the toxicological effects of PrP on animals are still not well characterized. In this study, zebrafish embryos and larvae were exposed to PrP at concentrations of 5, 7.5, and 10 μM from 10 h post-fertilization (hpf) to 4 days post-fertilization (dpf), reflecting international safety standards. PrP exposure induced severe craniofacial cartilage deformities in larvae at 4 dpf, concomitant with a significant elevation in oxidative stress. Biochemical analyses confirmed markedly increased the activities of the antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) and enzymes catalase (CAT), alongside elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, indicating lipid peroxidation. RT-qPCR revealed downregulated expression of key chondrogenic marker genes (col2a1a, sox9a, sox9b). Additionally, morphological alterations in maxillofacial chondrocytes were observed, driven by significantly enhanced apoptosis without significant inhibition of proliferation. Critically, cotreatment with the antioxidant astaxanthin (AST) partially rescued craniofacial cartilage development. These findings demonstrate that PrP-induced oxidative stress promotes chondrocyte apoptosis, leading to craniofacial malformations in zebrafish embryos.

Methylparaben and propylparaben are widely used as preservatives in consumer products, including cosmetics, personal care items, and pharmaceuticals. Concerns have been raised regarding their potential for systemic absorption and estrogenic activity, which may contribute to endocrine disruption. This review evaluates current evidence on dermal absorption, metabolism, and systemic distribution of methylparaben and propylparaben, emphasizing factors influencing their bioavailability. Additionally, the estrogenic potential of these compounds in experimental studies is examined, assessing receptor binding affinity and biological effects. Overall, while parabens exhibit weak estrogenic activity compared to endogenous hormones, repeated exposure and cumulative effects warrant further investigation. The toxicokinetic data combined with estrogenic activity assessments provide critical insight into the risk of endocrine disruption associated with paraben exposure. This assessment provides an understanding of methylparaben and propylparaben safety, supporting informed regulatory decisions and consumer awareness.

The in vitro intestinal permeability of straight- and branched-chain parabens has not been extensively investigated. Sixteen parabens were tested in the Caco-2 assay. Passive diffusion was measured using PAMPA. The transport of the MCT1 substrate, p-coumaric acid, as well as propylparaben and isopropylparaben, was investigated. For straight-chain parabens, P app A-B and P app B-A decreased with increasing chain length and LogP. P app B-A values were similar to PAMPA permeability (P app PAMPA ), indicating passive diffusion. Losses in mass balance were due to non-specific binding, accumulation in the cells, and/or hydrolysis to 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HBA). The extent of hydrolysis of straight-chain parabens was inversely proportional to their LogP, suggesting they are carboxylesterase-1 (CES1) substrates. For C1-C5 straight-chain parabens, P app A-B was higher than P app B-A , indicating vectoral permeability. Transport of parent propylparaben was passive and pH-independent, but 4-HBA formed was actively transported out of the cells, which was pH-dependent. This indicated the involvement of apical MCT1 transporters (their presence was confirmed using p-coumaric acid). Kinetics measurements suggested that efflux of 4-HBA is predominantly via the basolateral membrane. Branched-chain parabens with good passive diffusion were poor CES1 substrates but may be transported via processes other than 4-HBA MCT1 efflux. In conclusion, P app values for parabens are best calculated using parent chemical and 4-HBA. The extent of vectoral permeability of straight-chain but not branched-chain parabens is correlated to the extent of hydrolysis and the concentration-dependent contribution of passive vs. active efflux of parent and 4-HBA, respectively.

Parabens (PBs) are alkyl esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid and are widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and beverages, and cosmetics due to their antimicrobial properties. Parabens are also known as "Endocrine disruptors" and can cause toxicity in different organisms. Parabens, especially methylparaben and propylparaben are also present in many environmental matrices, such as water sources and soil, and can cause cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in different organisms. This study aimed to evaluate the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of the two most commonly used types of parabens that are methylparaben and propylparaben on meristematic cells in onion root tips by comet assay and cytological anomaly-based evaluation. Root growth inhibition assay was used to evaluate root growth inhibition. A. cepa assay was used to assess mitotic index (MI) and chromosomal aberrations (CAs). DNA damage was assessed by comet assay. The half maximal effective concentration (EC 50 ) on the growth of A. cepa cells calculated for methylparaben and propylparaben was 75 ug/mL (2.70 ± 0.10 cm) and 25 ug/mL (2.70 ± 0.2 cm), respectively. Similarly, dose- and time-dependent decrease in mitotic index (MI), increase in chromosomal aberrations (CAs) and increase in DNA damage were observed by the exposure of A. cepa root tips to methylparaben and propylparaben upon 24 h and 48 h exposure periods. The findings of the study showed that propylparaben is more cytotoxic and genotoxic than methylparaben as evidenced by a significant reduction in MI, along with an increase in chromosomal aberrations and DNA damage when compared to methylparaben.

Skincare is an increasing concern, as ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes skin diseases and photoaging, increasing demand for photoprotective personal care products (PCPs). PCPs contain UV filters, namely ecamsule (ECA), 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) and octocrylene (OC), and parabens, such as propylparaben (PPb) and methylparaben (MPb). These enter the environment, posing toxicity risks to marine species. Ecotoxicity screening of multiple contaminants is resource-intensive, making in vitro alternatives valuable. We assessed the toxicity of these chemicals (0, 50, 500, 5000 ng/L) using S9 subcellular fractions from Mytilus galloprovincialis digestive glands (DG) and gills (G) after acute (30 min) in vitro exposure. Antioxidant enzymes activities decreased after exposure to EHMC and both parabens. OC triggered an increase in glutathione peroxidase activity. Carboxylesterases activity was inhibited in G exposed to EHMC and both parabens, whereas higher ECA concentrations increased the activity in DG. An increase in glutathione-S-transferase activity occurred in G exposed to MPb and the highest PPb concentration. Neurotoxicity occurred in DG exposed to EHMC and ECA, and in G exposed to EHMC, PPb and MPb. EHMC and both parabens elicited the strongest responses in the antioxidant and biotransformation systems, cellular damages and neurotoxicity. This study demonstrates that exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of cosmetic chemicals may lead to impairments within S9 subcellular fraction, which may compromise mussels' survival.

The objective of the current investigation was to develop a novel clobetasol propionate (CP) emulgel to enhance the efficacy and minimize side effects during topical application. Preparation of CP loaded emulsion was carried out by the hot emulsification method. The emulsion consisted of combinations of surfactants (Span 20/Tween 20), cosolvent (polyethylene glycol 400), preservatives (methylparaben, propylparaben), with liquid paraffin as the oil phase. The selected emulsion (batch CP7) has nano-size (387.6 ± 58.49 nm), narrow and uniform particle size distribution (PDI, 0.221), spherical morphology and negative zeta potential (-36.4 ± 5.66 mV). The CP7 emulsion was further converted to emulgel by incorporating it in carbopol 934 (2% w/w). The rheology and mechanical characterization of the prepared emulgel indicate appropriate viscosity (~ 300,000 cP), enough spreadability (4.47 ± 0.40 cm), mild hardness (27 g), reasonable adhesiveness (0.6 mJ), and good bioadhesive strength (11.07 ± 1.14 g/cm²), which is ideal for topical use. The CP release from emulgel and hydrogel was found distinct with the emulgel formulation showing significantly ( p  < 0.0001) slower and delayed drug release. Results of the anti-inflammatory study demonstrated greater inhibition (94.60% at 600 µg/mL) by CP emulgel, compared to other tested groups. The skin irritation potential by the HET-CAM method showed lower irritation score (~ 2.18, p  < 0.001) by the fabricated CP emulgel, which could be attributed to the encapsulation of CP within the emulsion. Overall, the developed CP emulgel demonstrated favorable characteristics for effective CP delivery, making it a promising option for the topical treatment of inflammatory skin disorders. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-026-04856-2.

Many chemicals used in personal care products (PCPs) have suspected health effects. Thus, PCP use may be an important modifiable source of chemical exposures. We conducted a five-day intervention during which women (N = 103, ages 18-30) in Grenoble, France, were asked to refrain from using their usual PCPs and were provided with alternative products free from the chemicals of interest. These included eleven phenols, sixteen phthalates, and two glycol ethers. Participants collected a sample of each urinary event for 24-hour periods before and on the last day of the intervention, from which chemical metabolites were assessed. Mixed regression models compared concentrations during the pre-intervention and intervention phases. A Health Impact Assessment (HIA) evaluated intervention's impacts on child health, if applied to French pregnant women. A daily median of 12 PCPs were used pre-intervention and 7 in the intervention phase. Compared to the pre-intervention phase, medians of phenoxyacetic acid (-64% [-72; -54]), bisphenol A (-39% [-53; -20]), methylparaben (-30% [-44; -13]), and monoethyl phthalate (-22% [-33; -7.8]) decreased during the intervention phase, while propylparaben was less often detected. The HIA suggested that the bisphenol A pregnancy concentration reduction could prevent 4.0% of asthma (95% CI: 0.4%, 10.2%) and 4.4% (95% CI: 0.4%, 10.8%) of wheezing cases and avoid a 0.44 (95% CI: 1.31, -0.42) IQ point loss in offsprings. PCPs are a modifiable source of harmful chemicals such as bisphenol A and parabens, and reducing/replacing PCPs lowered urinary concentrations of harmful chemicals in just five days. The HIA conducted for bisphenol A suggested that such reductions may have substantial health benefits. While average decreases in urinary concentrations were substantial, several chemicals remained detected after the intervention phase. Individual changes in PCPs use can decrease exposure to these chemicals, but regulatory actions would probably be more efficient and fairer.

Parabens, preservatives commonly used in personal care products (PCPs), have emerged as environmental contaminants of concern due to their biological activity, water solubility, and pseudo-persistence. This study assessed the occurrence of methylparaben (MeP), ethylparaben (EtP), propylparaben (PrP), and butylparaben (BuP) in PCPs available on the Argentine market, as well as their distribution in surface water, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sediments from La Plata city and the surrounding metropolitan area, Argentina. A total of 183 PCPs were analyzed in sampling campaigns conducted in 2018 and 2022. MeP and PrP were the most frequently detected compounds, with an overall decrease in detection frequency between the two campaigns, suggesting a shift toward "paraben-free" formulations. However, inconsistencies were observed between product labeling and actual paraben content. In environmental matrices, MeP and PrP were consistently detected across all campaigns, primarily in water and SPM, with maximum concentrations of 1519 ng/L and 24,610 ng/g (dry weight), respectively. Detection patterns were spatially and temporally homogeneous, indicating a continuous input from urban sources. Multivariate analysis confirmed the association of MeP and PrP with surface water and SPM and suggested limited retention in sediments. These findings highlight the need for stricter regulatory frameworks, improved labeling transparency, and the implementation of systematic monitoring programs that address both consumer products and their environmental implications. This study provides the first integrated evaluation of parabens in consumer products and urban aquatic environments in Argentina.